I. The beginnings -- The origins of government -- The first civil war and sect formation -- The Umayyads -- -- II. The waning of the tribal tradition, c. 700-900 -- Introduction -- The Kharijites -- The Mu'tazilites -- The Shi'tes of the Umayyad period -- The 'Abbasids and Shi'ism -- The Zaydis -- The Imamis -- The Hadith party -- -- III. Coping with a fragmented world -- Introduction -- The Persian tradition and advice literature -- The Greek tradition and "Political science" -- The Ismailis -- The Sunnis -- -- IV. Government and society -- The nature of government -- The functions of government -- Visions of freedom -- The social order -- Muslims and non-Muslims -- Epilogue: religion, government, and society revisited