Evolution in the Galaxy Population -- Foundations of Galaxy Evolution Models -- Evolutionary Synthesis Models -- Basic Statistics of Galaxies -- Computing Models for Faint-Galaxy Samples -- Distant Galaxy Observations in the Real World -- Galaxy Profiles at High Redshift -- Reconciling Counts with the Redshift Distribution -- The Butcher-Oemler Effect - A Case Study -- Deep-Universe Programs for the Future -- to the Standard Model -- The Physics of Background Radiation -- Observations of the Extragalactic Background Radiation -- The Robertson-Walker Metric -- World Models -- Number Counts and the Background Radiation -- The Origin of the X-ray and Gamma-ray Backgrounds -- A Brief Thermal History of the Universe -- The Origin of the Large-Scale Structure of the Universe -- Dark Matter and Galaxy Formation -- Fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation -- The Intergalactic Gas -- Galaxy Formation and the Background Radiation -- The First Test: The Count-Magnitude Relation: Theory and Practice I (The Early Phase 1920-1938) -- The Count-Magnitude Relation: Theory and Practice II (The Modern Attempts) -- The Second Test: Angular Size = f(z,q0) -- The Third Test: The Redshift-Distance Relation Based on the m(z, qo) Hubble Diagram -- Is the Expansion Real? -- The Fourth Test: Timing (Age of the Galaxy) -- Timing Test Continued -- The Hubble Constant from Type Ia Supernovae -- Observational Selection Bias.